Language Specification

In this chapter we will learn about

  • Language keywords

  • Language Functions

  • Compiler Errors

  • Runtime Errors

  • Environment Errors

  • Language Grammar

  • Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Language Keywords

Keywords Count : 58

  • again

  • and

  • but

  • bye

  • call

  • case

  • catch

  • changeringkeyword

  • changeringoperator

  • class

  • def

  • do

  • done

  • else

  • elseif

  • end

  • exit

  • for

  • from

  • func

  • get

  • give

  • if

  • import

  • in

  • load

  • loadsyntax

  • loop

  • new

  • next

  • not

  • off

  • ok

  • on

  • or

  • other

  • package

  • private

  • put

  • return

  • see

  • step

  • switch

  • to

  • try

  • while

  • endfunc

  • endclass

  • endpackage

  • endif

  • endfor

  • endwhile

  • endswitch

  • endtry

  • function

  • endfunction

  • break

  • continue

Language Functions

Functions Count : 245

acos(x) ---> The principal value of the arc cosine of x, expressed in radians
add(List,Item)
addattribute(Object,cAttributeName|aAttributesList)
adddays(cDate,nDays) ---> Date from cDate and after nDays
addmethod(Object,cNewMethodName,cMethodName|AnonymousFunction)
addsublistsbyfastcopy(lFlag)
addsublistsbymove(lFlag)
ascii(character) ---> ASCII Code
asin(x) ---> The principal value of the arc sine of x, expressed in radians
assert(condition)
atan(x) ---> The principal value of the arc tangent of x, expressed in radians
atan2(y,x) ---> The principal arc tangent of y/x, in the interval [-pi,+pi] radians
attributes(object) ---> Returns a list contains the object attributes
binarysearch(List,ItemValue) ---> Item Index
binarysearch(List,ItemValue,nColumn) ---> Search in nColumn, returns the Item Index
bytes2double(cBytes) ---> nNumber
bytes2float(cBytes) ---> nNumber
bytes2int(cBytes) ---> nNumber
callgarbagecollector()
callgc()
ceil(x) ---> The smallest integer value greater than or equal to x
cfunctions() ---> a list contains functions names
char(ASCII Code) ---> character
chdir(cNewPath)
checkoverflow(lFlag)
classes() ---> a list contains classes names
classname(object) ---> Returns the object class name
clearerr(FileHandle)
clock() ---> The number of clock ticks from program start
clockspersecond() ---> Number of clocks in one second
closelib(pDLL)
copy(string,nCount) ---> string replicated nCount times
cos(x) ---> The cosine of an angle of x radians
cosh(x) ---> The hyperbolic cosine of x radians
currentdir() ---> String contains the path of the current directory
date() ---> String represent the date "dd/mm/yyyy"
dec(hexadecimal) ---> decimal
decimals(n) ---> Determine the decimals digits after the point in float/double numbers
del(list,index)
diffdays(cDate1,cDate2) ---> number of days (Date1 - Date2)
dir(cFolderPath) ---> List contains files & sub folders.
direxists(cDirPath) ---> returns 1 if the directory exists
double2bytes(nNumber) ---> cBytes
eval(cCode)
exefilename() ---> String contains the Ring executable file name
exefolder() ---> String contains the Ring executable path
exp(x) ---> The value of e raised to the xth power
fabs(x) ---> The absolute value of x
fclose(FileHandle)
feof(FileHandle) ---> returns 1 if EOF and 0 if not
ferror(FileHandle) ---> returns 1 if error and 0 if not
fexists(cFileName) ---> returns 1 if the file exists
fflush(FileHandle)
fgetc(FileHandle) ---> returns character or EOF
fgetpos(FileHandle) ---> position handle
fgets(FileHandle,nSize) ---> string
filename() ---> String contains the active source file name
find(List,ItemValue) ---> Item Index
find(List,ItemValue,nColumn) ---> Search in nColumn, returns the Item Index
find(List,ItemValue,nColumn,cAttribute) ---> Item Index
float2bytes(nNumber) ---> cBytes
floor(x) ---> The largest integer value less than or equal to x
fopen(cFileName,cMode) ---> FileHandle
fputc(FileHandle,cChar)
fputs(FileHandle,cString)
fread(FileHandle,nSize)
freopen(cFileName,cMode,file handle) ---> FileHandle
fseek(FileHandle,nOffset,nWhence) ---> zero if successful
fsetpos(FileHandle,PositionHandle)
ftell(FileHandle) ---> file position as number
functions() ---> a list contains functions names
fwrite(FileHandle,cString)
getarch() ---> cString (The name of the architecture of the Ring executable)
getattribute(oObject,cAttributeName) ---> Attribute Value
getchar() ---> Character
getfilesize(cFilePath) ---> nSize
getnumber() ---> Number
getpathtype(cPath) ---> nStatus
getpointer(pointer) ---> nAddress
getptr(pointer) ---> nAddress
getstring() ---> String
globals() ---> a list contains variables names in the global scope
hex(decimal) ---> hexadecimal
hex2str(Hexadecimal string) ---> string
input(nCount) ---> string
insert(List,Index,Item)
int2bytes(nNumber) ---> cBytes
intvalue(cVariableName)
isalnum(value) ---> 1 if the value is digit/letter or 0 if not
isalpha(value) ---> 1 if the value is a letter or 0 if not
isandroid() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Android, Returns 0 if it's not
isattribute(object,cAttributeName) ---> Returns True if the object contains the attribute
iscfunction(cFunctionName) ---> returns 1 if the C function is defined
isclass(cClassName) ---> returns 1 if the Class is defined
iscntrl(value) ---> 1 if the value is a control character or 0 if not
isdigit(value) ---> 1 if the value is a digit or 0 if not
isfreebsd() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is FreeBSD, Returns 0 if it's not
isfunction(cFunctionName) ---> returns 1 if the Ring function is defined
isglobal(cVariableName) ---> returns 1 if the variable is defined in the global scope
isgraph(value) ---> 1 if the value can be printed (Except space) or 0 if not
islinux() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Linux, Returns 0 if it's not
islist(value) ---> 1 if the value is a list or 0 if not
islocal(cVariableName) ---> returns 1 if the variable is defined in the local scope
islower(value) ---> 1 if the value is lowercase letter or 0 if not
ismacosx() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Mac OS X, Returns 0 if it's not
ismethod(object,cMethodName) ---> Returns True if the object class contains the method
ismsdos() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is MS-DOS, Returns 0 if it's not
isnull(value) ---> 1 if the value is NULL or 0 if not
isnumber(value) ---> 1 if the value is a number or 0 if not
isobject(variable) ---> Returns True if it's an object, False if it's not
ispackage(cPackageName) ---> returns 1 if the Package is defined
ispackageclass(cPackageName,cClassName) ---> returns 1 if the Class is defined
ispointer(vPara) ---> True|False
isprint(value) ---> 1 if the value occupies a printing position or 0 if not
isprivateattribute(object,cAttributeName) ---> lResult
isprivatemethod(object,cMethodName) ---> lResult
ispunct(value) ---> 1 if the value is a punctuation character or 0 if not
isspace(value) ---> 1 if the value is a white-space or 0 if not
isstring(value) ---> 1 if the value is a string or 0 if not
isunix() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Unix, Returns 0 if it's not
isupper(value) ---> 1 if the value is an uppercase alphabetic letter or 0 if not
iswindows() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Windows, Returns 0 if it's not
iswindows64() ---> Returns 1 if the operating system is Windows64, Returns 0 if it's not
isxdigit(value) ---> 1 if the value is a hexadecimal digit character or 0 if not
left(string,count) ---> Get characters starting from the left
len(string) ---> String length
len(List) ---> The list size
lines(string) ---> Number of lines inside the string
list(nSize) ---> aList
list(nRows,nCols) ---> aList
list2str(list) ---> string contains the list items
loadlib(cDLLFileName) ---> pDLL
locals() ---> a list contains the variables names in the current scope
log(x) ---> The natural logarithm of x (the base of e)
log(x,b) ---> The logarithm of x to the base of b
log10(x) ---> The common logarithm (base-10 logarithm) of x
lower(string) ---> convert string letters to lower c
max(nNumber1,nNumber) ---> Maximum number
max(aList) ---> Maximum number inside the list
memcpy(pDestinationPointer,cSourceString,nSize)
memorycopy(pDestinationPointer,cSourceString,nSize)
mergemethods(cClassNameDestination,cClassNameSource)
methods(object) ---> Returns a list contains the object methods
min(nNumber,nNumber2) ---> Minimum number
min(aList) ---> Minimum number inside the list
murmur3hash(cString,nNumber) ---> nNumber
newlist(nSize) ---> aList
newlist(nRows,nCols) ---> aList
nofprocessors() ---> nProcessors
nullpointer() ---> pPointer
nullptr() ---> pPointer
number(string) ---> Number
obj2ptr(List|Object) --> Low Level Object ( C Pointer )
object2pointer(List|Object) --> Low Level Object ( C Pointer )
objectid(object) ---> Returns the object id
packageclasses() cPackageName) ---> a list contains classes names inside the package
packagename() ---> Returns the package name of the latest successful import
packages() ---> a list contains packages names
perror(cErrorMessage)
pointer2object(Low Level Object) ---> List|Object
pointer2string(pointer,nStart,nCount) ---> cString
pointercompare(oObject1,oObject2) ---> lResult
pow(x,y) ---> x raised to the power of y
prevfilename() ---> String contains the previous source file name.
print(cString)
print2str(cString) ---> String
ptr2obj(Low Level Object) ---> List|Object
ptr2str(pointer,nStart,nCount) ---> cString
ptrcmp(oObject1,oObject2) ---> lResult
puts(cString)
raise(cErrorMessage)
random(x) ---> A random number in the range [0,x]
randomize(nNumber) ---> nNumber
read(cFileName) ---> String contains the file content
remove(cFileName)
rename(cOldFileName,cNewFileName) ---> Zero for Success or -1 for Error
reverse(List) ---> Reversed List
rewind(FileHandle)
right(string,count) ---> get characters starting from the right
ring_give(cVariable)
ring_see(cMessage)
ring_state_delete(oState)
ring_state_filetokens(oState,cRingFileName) ---> aTokens
ring_state_findvar(oState,cVariableName) ---> aVariableList
ring_state_init() ---> oState
ring_state_main(cRingFileName)
ring_state_mainfile(oState,cRingFileName)
ring_state_new() ---> oState
ring_state_newvar(oState,cVariableName) ---> aVariableList
ring_state_runcode(oState,cCode)
ring_state_runfile(oState,cRingFileName)
ring_state_runobjectfile(oState,cRingObjectFileName)
ring_state_scannererror(oState) ---> nStatus
ring_state_setvar(oState,cVariableName,Value)
ring_state_stringtokens(oState,cRingFileName)
ring_state_stringtokens(oState,cRingFileName,lCaseSensitive)
ringvm_callfunc(cFuncName)
ringvm_calllist() ---> List
ringvm_cfunctionslist() ---> List
ringvm_classeslist() ---> List
ringvm_codelist() ---> List
ringvm_evalinscope(nScope,cCode)
ringvm_fileslist() ---> List
ringvm_functionslist() ---> List
ringvm_genarray(aList)
ringvm_give(cVariableName)
ringvm_hideerrormsg(lStatus)
ringvm_info() ---> List of information about the VM structure
ringvm_memorylist() ---> List
ringvm_packageslist() ---> List
ringvm_passerror()
ringvm_scopescount() ---> nScopes
ringvm_see(cMessage)
ringvm_settrace(cCode)
ringvm_tracedata() ---> aDataList
ringvm_traceevent() ---> nTraceEvent
ringvm_tracefunc() ---> cCode
setattribute(oObject,cAttributeName,Value)
setpointer(pointer,nNewAddress)
setptr(pointer,nNewAddress)
shutdown(nStatus)
sin(x) ---> The sine of an angle of x radians
sinh(x) ---> The hyperbolic sine of x radians
sort(List) ---> Sorted List
sort(List,nColumn) ---> Sorted List based on nColumn
sort(List,nColumn,cAttribute) ---> Sorted List based on Object Attribute
space(nBytesCount) ---> String
sqrt(x) ---> The square root of x
srandom(x) ---> Initialize random number generator
str2hex(string) ---> hexadecimal string
str2hexcstyle(string) ---> hexadecimal string
str2list(string) ---> list contains the string lines
strcmp(cString1,cString2) ---> value = 0 if cString1 = cString2
string(number) ---> String
substr(string,substring) ---> the starting position of substring in string
substr(string,position)  ---> Get substring starting from position to end
substr(string,position,count)  ---> Get characters starting from position
substr(string,substring,newsubstring)  ---> Transformed string (Match case)
substr(string,substring,newsubstring,1) ---> Transformed string (Ignore case)
swap(aList,nItem1,nItem2)
sysget(cVariable)
sysset(cVariable,cValue) ---> Returns 1 for success and return 0 for failure
system(cCommand)
sysunset(cVariable) ---> Returns 1 for success and return 0 for failure
tan(x) ---> Tangent of an angle of x radians
tanh(x) ---> The hyperbolic tangent of x radians
tempfile() ---> FileHandle
tempname() ---> generated file name as string
time() ---> The system time as String
timelist() ---> List contains the time and date information.
trim(string) ---> Remove spaces from right and left
type(value) ---> The Type as String
ungetc(FileHandle,character)
unsigned(nNum1,nNum2,cOperator) ---> Perform operation using unsigned numbers
upper(string) ---> convert string letters to UPPER case
uptime() ---> nTime
variablepointer(cVariableName,cPointerType) ---> Low Level Object (C Pointer)
varptr(cVariableName,cPointerType) ---> Low Level Object (C Pointer)
version() ---> String contains the Ring version
windowsnl() ---> Returns a string contains CR+LF = CHAR(13) + CHAR(10)
write(cFileName,cString)

Compiler Errors

  • Error (C1) : Error in parameters list, expected identifier

  • Error (C2) : Error in class name

  • Error (C3) : Unclosed control structure, ‘ok’ is missing

  • Error (C4) : Unclosed control structure, ‘end’ is missing

  • Error (C5) : Unclosed control structure, next is missing

  • Error (C6) : Error in function name

  • Error (C7) : Error in list items

  • Error (C8) : Parentheses ‘)’ is missing

  • Error (C9) : Brackets ‘]’ is missing

  • Error (C10) : Error in parent class name

  • Error (C11) : Error in expression operator

  • Error (C12) : No class definition

  • Error (C13) : Error in variable name

  • Error (C14) : Try/Catch miss the Catch keyword!

  • Error (C15) : Try/Catch miss the Done keyword!

  • Error (C16) : Error in Switch statement expression!

  • Error (C17) : Switch statement without OFF

  • Error (C18) : Missing closing brace for the block opened!

  • Error (C19) : Numeric Overflow!

  • Error (C20) : Error in package name

  • Error (C21) : Unclosed control structure, ‘again’ is missing

  • Error (C22) : Function redefinition, function is already defined!

  • Error (C23) : Using ‘(‘ after number!

  • Error (C24) : The parent class name is identical to the subclass name

  • Error (C25) : Trying to access the self reference after the object name

  • Error (C26) : Class redefinition, class is already defined!

  • Error (S1) : Literal not closed!

  • Warning (W1) : Duplication in file name

  • Warning (W2) : The Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword requires two words as parameters

  • Warning (W3) : Compiler command ChangeRingKeyword - Keyword not found !

  • Warning (W4) : The Compiler command ChangeRingOperator requires two words as parameters

  • Warning (W5) : Compiler command ChangeRingOperator - Operator not found !

  • Warning (W6) : Using the EXIT command outside loop!”

  • Warning (W7) : Using the LOOP command outside loop!”

Runtime Errors

  • Error (R1) : Can’t divide by zero !

  • Error (R2) : Array Access (Index out of range) !

  • Error (R3) : Calling Function without definition !

  • Error (R4) : Stack Overflow !

  • Error (R5) : Can’t access the list item, Object is not list !

  • Error (R6) : Variable is required

  • Error (R7) : Can’t assign to a string letter more than one character

  • Error (R8) : Variable is not a string

  • Error (R9) : Using exit command outside loops

  • Error (R10) : Using exit command with number outside the range

  • Error (R11) : Error in class name, class not found!

  • Error (R12) : Error in property name, property not found!

  • Error (R13) : Object is required

  • Error (R14) : Calling Method without definition !

  • Error (R15) : Error in parent class name, class not found!

  • Error (R16) : Using braces to access unknown object !

  • Error (R17) : Error, using ‘Super’ without parent class!

  • Error (R18) : Numeric Overflow!

  • Error (R19) : Calling function with less number of parameters!

  • Error (R20) : Calling function with extra number of parameters!

  • Error (R21) : Using operator with values of incorrect type

  • Error (R22) : Using loop command outside loops

  • Error (R23) : Using loop command with number outside the range

  • Error (R24) : Using uninitialized variable

  • Error (R25) : Error in package name, Package not found!

  • Error (R26) : Calling private method from outside the class

  • Error (R27) : Using private attribute from outside the class

  • Error (R28) : Using bad data type as step value

  • Error (R29) : Using bad data type in for loop

  • Error (R30) : Parent class name is identical to child class name

  • Error (R31) : Trying to destroy the object using the self reference

  • Error (R32) : The CALL command expect a variable contains string!

  • Error (R33) : Bad decimals number (correct range >= 0 and <= 90)

  • Error (R34) : Variable is required for the assignment operation

  • Error (R35) : Can’t create/open the file!

  • Error (R36) : The column number is not correct! It’s greater than the number of columns in the list

  • Error (R37) : Sorry, The command is not supported in this context

  • Error (R38) : Runtime Error in loading the dynamic library!

  • Error (R39) : Error occurred creating unique filename

  • Error (R40) : Numeric underflow!

  • Error (R41) : Invalid numeric string

Environment Errors

  • Error (E1) : Caught SegFault

  • Error (E2) : Out of Memory

  • Error (E3) : Deleting scope while no scope!

  • Error (E4) : Long VM Instruction!

  • Error (E5) : The file type is not correct - the VM expect a ring object file

  • Error (E6) : The Ring Object File version is not correct!

  • Error (E7) : Internal error in using sscanf() function!

  • Error (E8) : Internal error in using fscanf() function!

Language Grammar

Program —> {statement}

Statement —> ‘package’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’] [‘end’|’endpackage’]

Statement —> ‘class’ <Identifier> [ ‘from’|’:’|’<’ <Identifier> ] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endclass’]

Statement —> ‘func’|’def’ <Identifier> [ParaList] [‘{‘ {statement} ‘}’][‘end’|’endfunc’]

Statement —> ‘import’ <Identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Statement —> ‘private’

Statement —> ‘load’ [‘package’|’again’] <Literal>

Statement —> ‘loadsyntax’ <Literal>

Statement —> ‘changeringkeyword’ <OldKeyword> <NewKeyword>

Statement —> ‘changeringoperator’ <OldOperator> <NewOperator>

Statement —> ‘see’|’put’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘give’|’get’ <Identifier>

Statement —> ‘if’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} [ {‘but’|’elseif’ <Expr> {Statement} } ] [‘else’ {Statement} ] ‘ok’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘Switch’ <Expr> [‘{‘] { ‘on’|’case’ <Expr> {statement} } [‘other’ {Statement} ] ‘off’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘=’ <Expr> ‘to’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {Statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘for’ <Identifier> ‘in’ <Expr> [ ‘step’ <Expr> ] [‘{‘] {statement} ‘next’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘while’ <Expr> [‘{‘] {statement} ‘end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘do’ {statement} ‘again’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘try’ {statement} [‘{‘] ‘catch’ {statement} ‘done’|’end’|’}’

Statement —> ‘return’ <Expr>

Statement —> ‘bye’

Statement —> ‘exit’

Statement —> ‘loop’

Statement —> <Expr>

Statement —> epsilon

ParaList —> epsilon

ParaList —> [‘(‘] <Identifier> [{ ‘,’ <Identifier> }] [‘)’]

Expr —> <LogicNot> [{ ‘and’|’or’ <LogicNot> }]

LogicNot –> [‘not’] <EqualOrNot>

EqualOrNot –> [ ‘=’|’!=’ ] <Compare>

Compare —> <BitOrXor> [ { ‘<’ | ‘>’ | ‘<=’ | ‘>=’ <BitOrXor> } ]

BitOrXor —> <BitAnd> [ { ‘|’ | ‘^’ <BitAnd> } ]

BitAnd —> <BitShift> [ { ‘&’ <BitShift> } ]

BitShift —> <Arithmetic> [ { ‘<<’ | ‘>>’ <Arithmetic> } ]

Arithmetic —> <Term> [ { ‘+’ | ‘-‘ <Term> } ]

Term —> <Range> [ { ‘*’ | ‘/’ | ‘%’ <Range> } ]

Range —> <Factor> [ ‘:’ <Factor> ]

Factor —> <Identifier> [ {Mixer} ] [ ‘=’ <Expr> ]

Factor —> <Number>

Factor —> <Literal>

Factor —> ‘:’ <Identifier>

Factor —> ‘-‘ <Factor>

Factor —> ‘(‘ <Expr> ‘)’

Factor —> <List>

Factor —> ‘new’ <Identifier>

Factor —> <AnonymousFunction>

Factor —> ‘call’ <identifier> { ‘.’ <Identifier> } ‘(‘ <Parameters> ‘)’

List —> ‘[‘ [ <Expr> { ‘,’ <Expr> } ] ‘]’

Mixer —> { ‘.’ <Identifier> }

Mixer —> ‘[‘ <Expr> ‘]’

Mixer —> ‘(‘ [ <Expr> [ { ‘,’ <Expr> }] ] ‘)’

Mixer —> ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

AnonymousFunction —> ‘func’|’def’| [<ParaList>] ‘{‘ {Statement} ‘}’

Virtual Machine (VM) Instructions

Definitions :-

  • VM : Virtual Machine

  • Stack : VM Stack

  • IR : Instruction Register

  • PC : Program Counter

  • VP : Variable Pointer

  • Stack[nSize] : Last Item in the Stack (Last In - First Out)

  • VV : Variable Value (We have a Pointer to a variable, And we access this variable value)

(Stack and Variables)

Operation

Description

ICO_PUSHC

Add string from the IR to the stack

ICO_PUSHN

Add number from the IR to the stack

ICO_PUSHV

Replace VP in the stack[nSize] with the variable value

ICO_LOADADDRESS

Read variable name from the IR, push VP to the stack

ICO_ASSIGNMENT

Stack[nSize-1] VV = Stack[nSize] VV , POP Stack[nSize]

ICO_INC

Increment Number in Stack[nSize] by 1

ICO_LOADAPUSHV

The same as ICO_LOADADDRESS then ICO_PUSHV

ICO_NEWLINE

Store new line number (debug info)

ICO_FREESTACK

Remove all items from the stack , nSize = 0

ICO_FILENAME

Store the source code file name (debug info)

ICO_FREELOADASCOPE

Free the Scope List of the current Expression

(Jump)

Operation

Description

ICO_JUMP

Set PC to new value from the IR

ICO_JUMPZERO

If Stack[nSize] is a number = 0 then Set PC to new value from the IR

ICO_JUMPFOR

End of for loop

ICO_JUMPONE

If Stack[nSize] is a number = 1 then Set PC to new value from the IR

ICO_JUMPZERO2

As ICO_JUMPZERO but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘AND’ conditions)

ICO_JUMPONE2

As ICO_JUMPONE but add 1 to the stack (required for many ‘OR’ conditions)

(Compare)

Operation

Description

ICO_LESSEQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] <= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_EQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] = stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_LESS

If stack[nSize-1] < stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_GREATER

If stack[nSize-1] > stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_GREATEREQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] >= stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

ICO_NOTEQUAL

If stack[nSize-1] != stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize], set Stack[nSize-1] = 1 else set Stack[nSize-1] = 0

(Math)

Operation

Description

ICO_SUM

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] + Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_SUB

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] - Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_MUL

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] * Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_DIV

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] / Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_MOD

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] % Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_NEG

Stack[nSize] = - Stack[nSize-1]

ICO_PLUSPLUS

Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] + 1

ICO_MINUSMINUS

Stack[nSize] = Stack[nSize] - 1

(Logic)

Operation

Description

ICO_AND

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] && Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_OR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] || Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_NOT

Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

(Lists)

Operation

Description

ICO_LISTSTART

Start New List in Temp. Memory

ICO_LISTITEM

Add List Item

ICO_LISTEND

End List

ICO_LOADINDEXADDRESS

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] VV [ Stack[nSize] ] , POP stack[nSize]

(Functions)

Operation

Description

ICO_LOADFUNC

Find function

ICO_CALL

Call function

ICO_RETURN

Return from function

ICO_RETNULL

Return NULL from function

ICO_RETFROMEVAL

Return after eval()

ICO_RETITEMREF

Return the list item reference - not the value

ICO_NEWFUNC

Start new function

ICO_BLOCKFLAG

Flag to determine where to jump later (after ICO_RETURN)

ICO_FUNCEXE

Start executing function

ICO_ENDFUNCEXE

End function execution

ICO_ANONYMOUS

Anonymous function

ICO_FREETEMPLISTS

Delete temp. lists

(User Interface)

Operation

Description

ICO_PRINT

Print value to the standard output

ICO_GIVE

Get input from the keyboard

(End Program/Loop)

Operation

Description

ICO_BYE

End execution of VM

ICO_EXITMARK

Place to exit to from a loop

ICO_POPEXITMARK

Remove exit mark

ICO_EXIT

Break from one loop or more

ICO_LOOP

Continue to next loop

(For Better Performance)

Operation

Description

ICO_PUSHP

Push pointer to the stack

ICO_INCP

Increment variable value using pointer

ICO_PUSHPV

Push value of variable using variable pointer

ICO_INCJUMP

Increment then jump

ICO_INCPJUMP

Increment using pointer then jump

ICO_JUMPVARLENUM

Jump if variable value is <= numeric value

ICO_JUMPVARPLENUM

Jump if variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value

ICO_LOADFUNCP

Push function pointer

ICO_PUSHPLOCAL

Push pointer to local variable

ICO_INCLPJUMP

Increment value using pointer to local variable then jump

ICO_JUMPVARLPLENUM

Jump if the variable value (using pointer) <= numeric value

ICO_INCPJUMPSTEP1

Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)

ICO_JUMPVARPLENUMSTEP1

Increment value using variable pointer then jump (for loop step = 1)

(Try-Catch-Done)

Operation

Description

ICO_TRY

Start try region

ICO_DONE

End try region

(Duplicate and Range)

Operation

Description

ICO_DUPLICATE

Duplicate stack value

ICO_RANGE

Create list from value to value

(OOP)

Operation

Description

ICO_NEWOBJ

Create new object, get class name from the IR, push object pointer to the stack.

ICO_SETSCOPE

Called after creating new object, set the active scope to be the object scope.

ICO_LOADSUBADDRESS

Get object attribute, push the pointer to the stack.

ICO_LOADMETHOD

Find object method

ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD

Used after calling a method - normal case

ICO_AFTERCALLMETHOD2

Used after calling a method - second case

ICO_NEWCLASS

Start new class region

ICO_BRACESTART

Open brace

ICO_BRACEEND

End brace

ICO_IMPORT

Import package

ICO_PRIVATE

start private attributes region

ICO_SETPROPERTY

set attribute value - check for setter.

ICO_CALLCLASSINIT

call class init() method.

(Other)

Operation

Description

ICO_SETREFERENCE

Copy by reference

ICO_KILLREFERENCE

Remove reference

ICO_ASSIGNMENTPOINTER

Determine the left side variable

ICO_BEFOREEQUAL

Determine operators like += , -= , … etc

(Bitwise Operators)

Operation

Description

ICO_BITAND

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] & Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITOR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] | Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITXOR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] ^ Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITNOT

Stack[nSize] = ! Stack[nSize]

ICO_BITSHL

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] << Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

ICO_BITSHR

Stack[nSize-1] = Stack[nSize-1] >> Stack[nSize] , POP stack[nSize]

(For Step)

Operation

Description

ICO_STEPNUMBER

Determine step number in for loop

ICO_POPSTEP

POP step number from steps stack

ICO_LOADAFIRST

Load the first address of variable name

(Custom Global Scope)

Operation

Description

ICO_NEWGLOBALSCOPE

Start new custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command

ICO_ENDGLOBALSCOPE

End of custom global scope - used by ‘load package’ command

ICO_SETGLOBALSCOPE

Set the current global scope